Star Newspaper Business Study

Star Newspaper Business Study Organization BACKGROUND Companys history The Star was first distributed provincially in George Town, Penang on the ninth of September, 1971. The Star went to turn into a national paper on Jan 3, 1976, when it set up an office in Kuala Lumpur. To adjust a developing staff and another press fusing the most recent innovation, it moved its central command from Kuala Lumpur to its current premises in Petaling Jaya in 1981. The Star made histor y on June 23, 1995 when it turned into the main Malaysian paper and the third in Asia to dispatch a World Wide Web version. Notwithstanding that, The Star additionally accomplished another achievement in its corporate history around the same time by being recorded on the Main Board of the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange. In the year 2000, The Star moved in stages to its own one of a kind 17 story premises, Menara Star in Section 16, Petaling Jaya. In January 2002, The Stars new printing plant, Star Media Hub was formally opened by the Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia, YAB Dato Seri Abdullah container Haji Ahmad Badawi in Shah Alam, Selangor. The Star likewise has another office and printing plant, Star Northern Hub in Bayan Lepas, Penang. About The Star and Sunday Star The Star weekday paper is bundled as a 4-in-1 paper, containing the Main Paper, StarBiz and StarTwo. The Main Paper covers the most recent in provincial, national and just as worldwide news while StarBiz offers a far reaching inclusion of nearby and universal budgetary news, for example, advertise patterns, money related reports and most recent market refreshes. StarTwo highlights articles on way of life, diversion, wellbeing, child rearing, social issues and so forth. Each Sunday, there is an extra area known as Sunday Star. For the Sunday Star, it covers current nearby and just as overall news. Aside from that, Sunday Star likewise contains an instructive area where vocations, further training, tests tips and different remarks are included inside. Governing body The current Executive Deputy Chairman of Star Publications (Malaysia) Berhad is Dato Clement Hii Chii Kok though the Group Managing Director/Chief Executive Officer is Datin Linda Ngiam Pick Ngoh. There are two Executive Director in the organization which is Tan Sri Datuk Seri Kamal Mohamed Hashim and Mr. Ng Beng Lye. What's more, the Group Editorial/Education Advisor is Dato Ng Poh Tip. Gatherings Financial Highlights The income of the organization as at 31 December 2008 is RM 831,040,000. Benefit before charge is RM201, 463,000 though the benefit after assessment is RM138, 701,000 which show that the duty cost is RM 62,762,000. Political and Legal Environment There is one law in Malaysia that secures media opportunity that is Article 10 of the Constitution. It additionally takes note of that there are cutoff points to this opportunity, and that these cutoff points are, for the most part, characterized by the Government. The constitution gives opportunity to discourse of the press. Be that as it may, some significant legitimate impediments exist. As per the administration, it constrained limitations on the media to ensure national security, open request, and benevolent relations with different nations. The law that gives enactment in light of a legitimate concern for security or open request may confine the right to speak freely of discourse. Model, Sedition Act precludes open remark on issues delicate, for example, racial and strict issues. Government utilized Sedition Act, Official Secrets Act, Printing Presses and Publications Act, criminal criticism laws, and different laws to restrain and compromise political discourse. With respect to Printing Presses and Publications Act, it requires nearby and outside distributions to apply every year to the administration for a license. This is to make distribution of mischievous news a culpable offense and approved the priest of inward security to boycott or limit distributions accepted to compromise open request, ethical quality, or national security. Additionally, it likewise precludes court difficulties to postpone or repudiation of distribution grants. As per the administration, these conditions ensure that the media didn't spread contorted news and were important to protect concordance and advance serene in a multiracial nation. Criminal maligning is deserving of a limit of two years in prison, a fine, or both. This is alongside the administration control over yearly permit reestablishment and different approaches restrained free or insightful news-casting and brought about broad self-oversight. Government had prohibited some remote papers and magazines and, sporadically, concealed outside magazines or papers. Besides, you could highlight the certifications under the Communications and Multimedia Act (CMA) in the event that you need to dazzle the group which spreads broadcasting and Internet. The certifications under this demonstration are no restraining infrastructure or oligopoly control of the wireless transmissions and nothing in the Act is to be viewed as restriction of the Internet. No restraining infrastructure or oligopoly control of the wireless transmissions is that no gathering of organizations should possess enough of the radio and TV slots to keep audience members and watchers from having a decision of material. So far is all acceptable yet they have not seen it tried so far. With respect to oversight of the Internet, it is more of an issue. In spite of the fact that there isn't any oversight or control of the Internet under this Act, doesnt mean there isnt any restriction of the Internet. Web get to was generally accessible and web memberships totalled around 13.5 million toward the finish of 2006. Be that as it may, criminal offense and preventive confinement laws created some self oversight from nearby Internet content sources. Models are bloggers, Internet news suppliers and NGO campaigners. The Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) shut down 11 Web locales for defying guidelines and guidelines concerning the distribution of data on the Internet. Neither the MCMC nor the administration discharged the names of the 11 Web locales. The CMA requires certain Internet and other system specialist co-ops to get a permit. Already, the legislature expressed that it didn't plan to implement controls on Internet use however that it would rebuff the abuse of data innovation. The CMA grants discipline of the proprietor of a Web webpage or blog for permitting substance of a racial, strict, or political nature that a court considers hostile. Other than that, practically all the news organizations are under a political control. This is the place the lawmaker utilizes the distributions to spread their news to the general population. The greatest press bunch was Media Prima which is possessed by Malaysia Resources Corporation Berhad which has close binds with the decision United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and government. Media Prima claims the main English-language paper The New Straits Times, the second greatest Malaysia-language paper Berita Harian, Malay Mail, Harian Metro and the ShinMin Daily News. What's more, Media Prima claims four earthly TV channels. Nonetheless, the obtaining of Nanyang from MCA two years prior which is 2005 has since arrangement its imposing business model in Chinese media. Sin Chew Media Group was being claimed by the lumber big shot, Tiong Hiew King. He as of now corners about 90% of the Chinese language paper showcase, with his control of Sin Chew ,which distributes Sin Chew Daily and Guang Ming Daily, and Nanyang Holdings, which has Nanyang Siang Pau and China Press. With respect to The Star, it was claimed by MCA while MIC possessed Malaysia Nanban. Monetary condition 2009 will bound to be a difficult year for Malaysia, despite the fact that Malaysias economy is holding up really well this year. The primary portion of 2009 is relied upon to be an extremely intense period for Malaysia. The effect on Malaysia this year has by one way or another been padded yet many are starting to feel the monetary downturn towards the year-end. Since the start of the worldwide monetary emergency, much has been said and distributed about its monetary and budgetary effect, yet moderately little has been said about the financial effect. While it isn't hard to watch the direct and frequently quick unsavory social effect of the emergency, little is thought about their backhanded and long haul impact on the countrys human turn of events and social capital potential which are progressively recognized in creating economies as a basic factor for reasonable turn of events. Monetary weights are turning into the essential powers deciding the conduct of Malaysian news organizations. It is progressively evident that the reactions of some paper directors are influencing editorial quality, creating rehearses that lessen the social estimation of paper content and that divert the attenâ ­tion of paper workforce from news-casting to exercises principally identified with the business interests of the press. This circumstance has advanced energized self-intrigued conduct planned for misusing market potential, and there is a developing clash between the job of papers as workers of perusers and the abuse of perusers to look for extra comâ ­mercial gain. It ought not be astonishing that people in general progressively considers the to be as simply one more business that is more worried about its own monetary advantages than with the more extensive interests of those it indicates to serve. This passage gives GDP development on a yearly premise balanced for swelling and communicated as a percent. The diagram above shows the general execution of Malaysian in economy. We can see the economy began to drop from the center for second quarter of 2008 till 2009. (Source: CIA World Fact book, September 17, 2009) The print media is as of now feeling the touch of the financial downturn. Paper adex has fallen for four continuous months from October to January 2009. In January, paper adex declined 4% year on year to RM258.6 million while complete adex for the media business in general (TV, radio and print) crawled up 2% year to year. This implies news organizations endured a greater blow than other media channels. As an open economy, Malaysia was gravely influenced by the worldwide money related emergency and econom

Self Discipline Diary

The vast majority proceeded to have their showers toward the beginning of the day prior to the action yet couldn't rise sufficiently early thus rather I advertisement my shower during one of the exercises which I got in a difficult situation for thus to enhance this the following morning figured out how to get myself up prior and have my shower before any exercises began so it didn't meddle. After we had the prologue to this unit about order, I understood that occasionally I don't show excellent poise when in upsetting situations.I recollected about this when was busy working on Saturday when a client blew up with me since she needed to restore an item. I recalled the thing my guide had said about restraint being a piece of good order, thus bet the circumstance in an unexpected way. I felt great a short time later. Am typically not acceptable at showing up at places on schedule, and this week I have been rising later and this has made me be late for school. Am irritated with myself f or permitting this to occur, thus I intend to hit the sack somewhat before one week from now, so that can show great time keeping and reliability. 3/09/2014 This week our course went on training camp in the new woods during this We needed to have great self-control, for instance when we arrived we needed to set up camp and two by two set up our tents autonomously subsequent to being indicated how o do as such by Phil. We likewise got put into gatherings and given a timetable of various exercises that we needed to participate in thus we must be composed at time keeping and figure out how to get to every movement at the right time. Lastly we needed to get up and out of our tents by 6:30 which was difficult to accomplish for a few (Particularly Kerosene).During this week I overlooked my ID identification on a few events and have been told by the receptionists that I have to acquire it regular. I additionally got berated for swearing subsequent to getting baffled with my tent, a region which will attempt my hardest to enhance. At training camp was the first occasion when I participated in drill, it was very dubious and from the outset I was unable to get its hang and seemed as though I was going the goose step more often than not. Anyway in the wake of taking a shot at it and rehearsing as a gathering figured out how to become familiar with the nuts and bolts and improve my walking and posture.It was especially difficult to get up right on time at training camp thus I was late to the primary meeting. Additionally, transports during the week are 90% of the time late, which is genuinely irritating as it impacts on my participation. 30/09/2014 This week I have figured out how to stay centered in my exercises and have not permitted myself to get occupied by others. During the week a colleague attempted to stand out enough to be noticed by hurling moved bits of paper at me. Be that as it may, I figured out how to disregard it. I am cheerful that I have stayed engaged a s thought of some great notes which I Can allude back to when I'm chipping away at my task sometime in the future. M content with the course and am thinking that its extremely intriguing, which causes me disregard other people who aren't indicating a similar enthusiasm for the meetings. I infrequently don't tune in to what my mentor has said due to having headphones in at that point, a zone at which I will enhance. A year ago at 6th structure was handily diverted by others thus wouldn't record highlights on the work we were doing this implied didn't have anything to help me on course work and update material for tests thus I fell behind. Again the transports have been recently, an exceptionally baffling issue.I will endeavor to get up prior so as to get a previous transport into school, so am not, at this point late to the principal meeting. 07/10/2014 This was our second exercise of drill and feel that I am getting more use to it and am learning more orders, the right stance that I can apply during the meeting. I could improve my consideration regarding Dale anyway I am getting occupied by others around me, instead of tuning in to the following guidance. I could likewise improve my planning and become more in time with the remainder of the gathering. Have progressed significantly from the principal meeting, and I currently know a great deal of moves and my planning is gradually improving.Our drill teacher is a significant calm character thus it is very difficult to hear him now and again during drill. 14/1 0/2014 Today we had a drill meeting and afterward had our first task with Phil, I gave my full consideration to what was being said as it set the bar for future assignments and it was significant that recognize what I was/will do. I could improve this week by dealing with my time and interests better close by my school work. Maybe cut certain parts of my public activity off so as to ensure I am applying the necessary measure of work.I made a movement this w eek by ensuring I gave my full consideration to Phil for our first task. Hadn't exactly got use to Office 365 and accordingly hadn't spared any of my work on the web; this implied couldn't accomplish any free work at home. 21/10/2014 Enjoyed Marks meeting this week and thought that it was exceptionally intriguing. Several cohorts were tricking round close the rear of my group and I figured out how to disregard it and continue with the set work, which I am satisfied with myself for. Could improve by being on time as I was late to several meetings in the first part of the day because of the transport being late by and by. Eve advanced for the current week by getting increasingly free in my assignments and getting office 365 to work for me, and consequently I had the option to accomplish some work at home for two or three hours, which I'm glad about. One set back would be that during drill we were learning another order (I think it was salutes) which just couldn't get he hang of, which was especially baffling for me. 28/1 0/2014 This week I making the most of Phial's meeting as we were making paper planes and we had a financial plan on what number of and which type we could make. My group lost miserably.However I turned into the pioneer of the group and in spite of my splendid plane structure (which was the most statically satisfying) different groups with their inept dart planes figured out how to (as I would like to think) cheat their approach to triumph. Work experience is rapidly drawing nearer and I still can't seem to do any arrangements for it. I should start to begin contemplating what I'll do and sort out myself some more. This week have advanced by being more sorted out with hardware and my timings for meetings have been greatly improved. Office 365 was playing up again and I couldn't accomplish any work at home for several days in the current week. 4/1/2014 This week we took in some new orders in drill which I figured out how to get the hang of. I paid a lot of regard for what was being said and didn't get diverted close to as much as generally would. One more week has passed by and I have still not accomplished anything about work understanding. Despite the fact that I currently have a couple of thoughts on where to go. I have started to come familiar with the ark load and what is anticipated from us in school as it is altogether different to 6th structure. I am finding the remaining burden the perfect sum for me to take on and am not falling behind on work at all contrasted with last year.I battled to discover what room I was in (because of development work) and in this way I was around 5 minutes late to one of my meetings with Phil. 1/11/2014 This week we traveled to RAFF Bribe Norton which was extremely fascinating and given my full consideration to what was being said by the different military people who addressed us. I didn't let anybody divert me and I altogether delighted in the day. This week was late to a meeting becaus e of awful time keeping and obliviousness. I felt terrible and I will not do it once more. I took in a ton at RAFF Bribe Norton and now have a couple of more territories I might want to kick into inside the military as a potential profession way. Didn't exactly see some portion of a task this week and didn't utter a word at that point so I currently need to hold up until one week from now so as to get some information about my questions 1 8/1/2014 This week we had Miles the PASO come in and converse with us about the hierarchy of leadership and stop and search rules/procedures. I gave my full consideration and ensured that I posed a lot of inquiries. I likewise chipped in for a showing I needed to carry on before the whole class. During the discussion by miles I didn't take any notes, which Phil had a word to me about as it implied I at that point didn't have any notes to think back on for help during task work.I have advanced for the current week by turning into an increasingly can did individual and posing numerous inquiries, which has profited the class and l. Was sick on Friday this week thus I missed a whole day of work, on which I will currently need to get up to speed with. 25/11/2014 This week I chose to hunker down at home and get some task work off the beaten path. I was extremely satisfied with my free work and it caused me to feel before my remaining task at hand, instead of behind it. I chose not to go to enhancement this Wednesday and chose to accomplish some task work which against school administers and is entirely flighty of me.It shouldn't occur once more. Have gained some extraordinary ground on assignments and am currently before my remaining burden which feels incredible and takes into consideration some an opportunity to do some social things this week which I am anticipating. I was late into school one day in the current week because of transport issues as was somewhat late to one of my first meetings. 02/12/2014 Our second to last penetr ate meeting was today and we have all started to pay attention to the meeting significantly more. I am done letting individuals occupy me so much and am attempting my hardest (regardless of the transports) to go up to bore on schedule.

Freedom of Speech Essay Topics

Freedom of Speech Essay TopicsFreedom of speech essay topics are the most important aspect of writing an essay. Essays are one of the most important pieces of writing that you will ever write and if you don't know how to write an essay, you should consider enrolling in a college writing class. Writing essays is the foundation of almost all writing courses.Speech means different things to different people. For some it is a political speech and for others it may be a speech meant to address an audience of a specific group. Nevertheless, the purpose of speech is to influence an audience to change their views and eventually the audience is to change their opinions.The same speech that is meant for a college student in a politically correct society is not used as a weapon for a freedom-loving American. Students are not mature enough to use free speech to challenge the authority of those who rule them. So while speech can be one of the best weapons for spreading ideas, when used wrongly it can actually damage the liberty of the speaker.Speech is only allowed where it helps to disseminate ideas. However, speech is also restricted when it is used to create a riotous atmosphere with violence or when it is considered a threat to the host. Examples of speech that is at times prohibited or is considered to be offensive are the following: The show of firearms and fighting words.The use of abusive language when delivering speeches. The offending character is immediately penalized. Therefore, it is seen that abuse of the freedom of speech often occurs when speakers resort to speech that harms others.Speech of controversial nature is not only restricted but is also sometimes considered to be illegal. This happens when the speaker promotes an idea that is opposed to a constitution. So, the speech can be political, religious, or social in nature but it has to be about something that the community wants to learn about.The speech is legally harmful if it offends the religious sent iments of the person who is the audience. The controversy in every matter has its own legitimacy and it is within the rights of the speaker to express his opinion in a way that does not hurt others. Therefore, the freedom of speech can be abused and speech can even be illegal depending on the nature of the opinions expressed by the speaker.If you want to make an effective speech that will convert an audience to your point of view, you should use the freedom of speech in a way that doesn't endanger the values of freedom of speech and the goals you have in mind. Because to offend the sentiments of others is not acceptable. So, by all means do not abuse the right of freedom of speech because it can be one of the greatest gifts that you could ever receive.

The Case Of The Lee County Sheriffs Office - 1062 Words

On December 9, 2015, Ronald Beecroft, a white male, born on May 4, 1964, contacted the Lee County Sheriff s Office to report a credit card fraud. Beecroft advised he had recently discovered a fraudulent transaction on his Home Depot business account. Beecroft explained the fraudulent charge was on Home Depot card number 6035-3221-3806-8766 for the amount of six hundred thirty-four dollars and ninety-four cents ($634.94). Beecroft stated the transaction was made on November 7, 2015, in the amount of six hundred thirty-four dollars and ninety-four cents, at a Home Depot located at 3031 North East Pine Island Road, Cape Coral, Florida. Beecroft notified Home Depot of the fraudulent charges and stated he did not allow any one use his credit card. Due to the nature of the incident, Detective Heath Lewis of the Lee County Sheriff s Office Economic Crimes Unit was assigned the case. On December 11, 2015, at approximately 9:10 a.m., Detective Lewis spoke with Beecroft about the incident. Beecroft provided and email Detective Lewis an account statement and fraud affidavit for the fraudulent charges on his Home Depot account. On December 23, 2015, at approximately 2:29 a.m., Detective Lewis spoke with Home Depot fraud investigator, who emailed Detective Lewis a copy of the receipt, for the fraudulent purchase and shipped a copy of the surveillance video. On January 5, 2016, Detective Lewis received a copy of the video surveillance from Home Depot. Detective LewisShow MoreRelatedScott Peterson795 Words   |  4 PagesDecember 23 or 24 of 2002, in the county of Stanislaus. April 17, 2003 the Judge of the Superior Court in Stanislaus County, California issued a warrant for the arrest of Scott Lee Peterson. The court found that the District Attorney’s office did, in fact, have probable cause to bring Scott Peterson in. The Judge specifically addressed bail in the warrant. No bail was granted. April 18, 2003, Scott Peterson was arrested at the Torrey Pines Golf Course, in Sand Diego County, California. At the time of hisRead MoreAileen Wuornos - Essay5419 Words   |  22 Pagesbiological children have said that the stress of Aileen and Keith’s behavior, Aileen’s pregnancy, and all the other problems Keith and Aileen caused is what killed their mother. Aileen dropped out of Troy High in the ninth grade. Aileen was called Lee by her friends in and out of school. This is when Aileen began to start prostitution. Along with prostitution came alcohol and drugs. Aileen was drifting from state to state. Even at this age, Aileen was using aliases and getting arrested. Aileen wasRead MoreHistory and Rolls of Law Enforcement in America10094 Words   |  41 Pagesbut actively strive to protect them. Many levels of jurisdiction have formed throughout recent history. The levels of jurisdiction descend in the following order starting with federal. The next level is the state authorities, followed by county sheriffs. The last remaining level is that of local law enforcement. All levels of jurisdiction have an important role in the balance of the policing system. (Mr.Kashirsky, in class) Now let us take a look at the distinction among the multipleRead MoreThe Law Of Criminal Justice1714 Words   |  7 Pagescrimes. Each case is different; it is but a coincidence that the victim was black and police officer white. In the police department, when a supervisor appoints you a zone, that is the zone you will be patrolling. The world we live in today, there are communities in which ethnicities are the same and never changing. Mike Brown lived in a community in which was predominantly black, by coincidence; the police officer who killed him was a white male patrolling his zone. When this specific case went to trialRead MoreFunctional Health Patterns Community Assessment2781 Words   |  12 Pagesespecially in a 1 income family. 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In any case, although the PMRC’s actions have not managed to directly lead to legislation or a more strict rating system, it is clear that since the Senate Hearing the issue of the nexus between popular music, sex, violence and declining moral standards has beenRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesUnderstanding and Appreciating Individual Differences Important Areas of Self-Awareness 61 Emotional Intelligence 62 Values 65 Ethical Decision Making and Values 72 Cognitive Style 74 Attitudes Toward Change 76 Core Self-Evaluation 79 SKILL ANALYSIS 84 Cases Involving Self-Awareness 84 Communist Prison Camp 84 Computerized Exam 85 Decision Dilemmas 86 SKILL PRACTICE 89 Exercises for Improving Self-Awareness Through Self-Disclosure 89 Through the Looking Glass 89 Diagnosing Managerial Characteristics 90

An Interpretive Analysis Of Hobbes And Locke s Discussion...

Government is crucial to have in society. Without it, there would be no one to set rules and maintain order, leading to utter chaos. In history, we have seen many different kinds of government, some which worked better than others. While democracy was viewed as an undesirable form of governance in the past, it has become quite the opposite today. Through an interpretive analysis of Hobbes and Locke’s discussion of democracy in their novels and use of several articles, I will illustrate how they both focused on the nature of humans and the purpose of having a government to help us better understand that although democracy puts some limitations on people, these limitations are needed in order to combat the actions of some people who may be†¦show more content†¦This reduces the chances for elected representatives to abuse their power. Also, citizens have the freedom of speech to voice their opinions on topics such as education and health rights. Democracy itself has many problems that should be fixed, such as not being able to guarantee that the some of the elected representatives will not be corrupted. However, other forms of government such as a monarchy has even more problems and are much worse forms of government as it gives the ruler all the power, leaving the people with no freedom to call out their leader if they are corrupted. In short, democracy is a government for the people consisting of people whose power was given to them by the people. For this reason, democracy is deemed the best form of governance today. To understand the importance of having a government, this section will focus on Hobbes and Locke’s similar views on the state of nature. Firstly, they both speak of the dangers of people living without a government. They also place an emphasis that all people are equal in the eyes of the state. We can see this evidence when Hobbes asserts that â€Å"nature hath made men so equal in the faculties of mind and body (158).† Similarly, Locke asserts that â€Å"state of perfect equality, where naturally there is no superiority or jurisdiction of one over another (288).† Without a â€Å"law of nature,† there would be a state of war as people are free to do as they please without consequences. Furthermore, without a

Augustus Ceasar of Rome Essay - 1051 Words

Augustus Caesar of Rome (Julius Caesar Research Project) â€Å"I found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble.† ~ Augustus Caesar Early Life Augustus was born on the 23rd of September in 63 B.C.E as Gaius Octavius Thurinus 20 miles away from Rome in Velletri, to Atai, Caesar’s niece, and Gaius Octavius. He went by Octavius from his birth in 63 B.C until his adoption in 44 B.C, which then he took up the name of Octavian, and finally in 26 B.C, he went by the name of Augustus, which was conferred onto him by the Roman Senate. The man donned the toga at 16 years of age, and took on responsibilities through the families connections. He went to Hispania (now known as Spain) in 47 B.C to fight†¦show more content†¦Augustus was later appointed by the senate to be a senator, despite his young age, and under the influence of Cicero, broke off allegiance with Antony, and Cicero supported the new senator. Augustus was also able to win some of the former dictator’s troops’ allegiance by helping in celebrating public games, trying to help integrate him into the cities populous. He later adopted the name of Gaius Julius Caesar, and with it was able to secure an official recognition as the former leader’s adopted son. Although it was he was able add his family’s name, Octavianus, he chose not to do so, and is usually referred to as Octavian, until he took the designation of Augustus. Path to Power â€Å"Hasten slowly.† ~Augustus Augustus was 17 years old in Apollonia (the modern day Albania), when the news of Caesar’s death reached him. Many of the former ruler’s allies rallied to Augustus to help defeat their rival, Mark Antony. After defeating the general’s armies in northern Italy, Augustus decided not to do a full out pursuit of Antony, instead decided to form an uneasy alliance with him instead. In 43 B.C, the three men, Octavian, Antony, and Marcus Lepidus, established the Second Triumvirate to divide Rome’s territories amongst themselves. Antony was given the east; Marcus was given the African territory, and Augustus getting the west. Two years later however, Antony began an affair with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, although through Senatorial degree that he wasShow MoreRelatedRoman Empire: Emperor Caesar Augustus 660 Words   |  3 Pageswar against your wife? Caesar Octavian Augustus did. Augustus was a great leader. Leaders are necessary because they need to show leadership amongst the people and unite the people as one doing anything to keep them safe. 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Octavius was the biological son of Gaius Octavius. Gaius was married to the daughter of Julia Caesar who happened to be the sister of the great Julius Ceasar. His father ended up dying only when he was four years old, and he ended up being adopted byRead MoreThe Reign of Great Ruler1599 Words   |  6 Pageswith laying the foundation for the Roman Empire to come. Caesars major conquest began with conquered Gaul, modern day France, making it a Roman province, expanding Roman territories. Later, Caesar negotiated with the Roman Senate to becomes Master of Rome, the sole dictator. During his rule, he established many reforms that threatened the aristocracy. He opened up land to newly conquered territories to poor Romans. He opened up Roman citizenship to the the new provinces. He was later assassinated byR ead MoreAlexander, Han Dynasty, Roman Empire, Hinduism, Islam1179 Words   |  5 Pagesand Contrast Judean, Roman, and Carthaginian responses to Hellenistic influences. How receptive was each society to Greek cultural influences? specifically Roman and Carthaginian? Zoom Roman- saw greek model as way to increase importance in med., rome went to large territorial state instead of city-state, greek style temples, pottery, paintings, and alphabet, wanted to appear civilized to rest of world Carthaginian- facilitated communication exchange. adapted succefully, merchants traded withRead MoreThe Underworld and How It Reflects the Goals and Realities of Virgil and Homer1588 Words   |  7 Pageshome to his beloved wife and family after the Trojan War in The Odyssey. The Roman poet Virgil composed The Aeneid for the first emperor of the Roman Empire, Caesar Augustus, in order to rebuild Rome after the civil war had ended. The Aeneid portrays a demigod, Aeneas, whose mission is to create a grand city that will be known as Rome. This paper analyzes the differences and similarities in how Virgil and Homer view the Underworld in The Odyssey and The Aeneid. These epic poems are similar in showingRead MoreWorld History Final Exam Study Guide1374 Words   |  6 PagesSparta and their allies 27 years Athens had stronger navy Sparta had stronger army Sparta eventually wins war by going by land to attack Athens Epic: long poem or story telling of heroes and heroic events Romulus and Remus: founding brothers of Rome; fought to see which would become leaderïÆ'  Romulus wins Hannibal: Carthage general in the final second Punic War Scipio: Roman general in second Punic War The Gracchi: Tiberius and Gaius; attempted to pass social and political reforms that favoredRead MoreCritical Analysis of Antony and Cleopatra. Act V, Scene 2- Representation of Power and Death1070 Words   |  5 Pagesshifting as the clouds that Antony describes in Act IV, scene xv. Despite Romans’ victory she does not allow her multifaceted identity to be stripped to one of its simplest, basest components. Thus she refuses to parade through the filthy streets of Rome as a trophy of the Romans’ Empire while some prepubescent boy mimics her greatness.† I’th posture of a whore† (V.ii.217). By killing her self Cleopatra remains Cleopatra. [SparkNotes, Antony and Cleopatra, Analysis, Act v, scene 2] The multifacetedRead MoreThe Achaemenid Era Of The Persian Empire1652 Words   |  7 PagesEmpire actually began with the overthrow of a King and the idea of a one man leadership in 509 BCE. The Republic of Rome built the empire and ruled until 27 BCE when a brutal civil war began and the victor, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Ceasar, was formally granted the new title Augustus. This effectively marked the end of the Roman Republic and beginning the actual Empire of Rome when he became Rome’s first true Emperor. When Octavian took power it began a period known as the Pax Romana, which

Pablo Picasso And Leonardo Da Vinci Essay Example For Students

Pablo Picasso And Leonardo Da Vinci Essay These two artist interest me the most because of their popularity even years after their death. To-date, we still talk about the Mona Lisa smile , and the Vitamin man with reference to the painting. These two paintings were done by Dad Vinci and Picasso respectively. Picasso was a Spanish Painter who dominated Western art in the 20th century. He acquired the skill of drawing and painting at a very young age. He did many art works eke oil painting, sculpturing, drawing and architecture. His artwork include paintings like The old guitarist, The Querying, Girl before mirror, The dream, Three musicians and Boy with pipe. Of all his artworks the most famous artwork was the Less Demolishes Davidson. This painting was done in Paris in the summer of 1907 and it was referred as the most innovative of his artworks. The painting involved the dislocation of faces and the contortion of space. Picasso created his own path and freedom of expression with regards to the world of art. Leonardo Dad Vinci was also a renewed painter. He was born in Italy in 1452, he was a jack of all trade as he was a skilled engineer, scientist, botanist, painter and sculptor. Dad Vinci was recognized for his many famous artistic works such as The Mona Lisa, The last supper, The Virgin and The Child with SST Anne, SST John the Baptist, and The battle of Angrier. The Vitamin man is one of the many paintings that caused worldwide discussion. He created this drawing around 1487 and it is accompanied by he notes of the architect Vitreous Polloi. This drawing is currently stored in the Galleria dialectical in Venice Italy. We can see a sharp contrast between Dad Vines and Picasso paintings. Picasso painting can easily be termed as abstract while Dad Vines drawing can be termed as proportional with emphasis to the symmetry of the drawing and its balance. This is why Dad Vines Vitamin Man drawing is sometimes known as the Canon of proportions or the proportion of Man. Dad Vinci had a keen interest in proportion in harp contrast with Picasso who did not focus on it. In Picasso El Demolishes Davidson painting he uses a lot of paint on the figures to make the painting more pronounced. In sharp contrast Dad Vinci uses Just a fine pencil and a piece of paper to bring out the picture. Both painting and drawing have a fine finish as the end result yet they were differently done. As Much as Picasso and Dad Vinci were different in the way they presented their paintings, they both had the similarities of being the finest minters in their time. Each of them created skillfully done paintings after thorough sketching. Though different in how they presented their artworks, they were similar in that they were both skillfully trained in other fields such as architecture and engineering. In conclusion the effects of their artwork is been felt to-date. Picasso is accredited with the introduction of cubism in the realm of art. He is also acknowledged for the introduction of symbolic paintings as opposed to real life forms that Dad Vinci did.

The Metamorphosis Essays - Absurdist Fiction, Modernist Literature

The Metamorphosis THE METAMORPHOSIS I believe that the overall theme to the story of the Metamorphosis by Kafka concerns society's injusticies and moralities and how they have reduced to a despicable level. Throughout the story Kafka shows how society can be split into different sections, with Gregor representing the working and useful man at the time and his family representing all the other kinds of people throughout society. When a person is no longer needed as a provider, a son, a brother or any other member of society, should he no longer be considered a human being? I think Kafka cries change in the Metamorphosis. The story begins deceptively simply confirming a horrific event with a detached matter-of -factness. ? As Gregor Samsa awoke one morning from uneasy dreams he found himself transformed in his bed into a giant insect.? The salesman who subjects himself to the relentless weakness of peddling wares to keep his family in the comfort to which they have grown accustomed suddenly finds himself transformed into an insect. He appears to accept the reality that he is no longer human with an unsettling calm, truly believing that he can still contribute to society, despite his ?differentness.' However, despite Gregor's willingness to accept his unjust fate, he soon discovers that his family is not quite as open-minded. Because Gregor was the sole source of financial support to his family, so his sudden change has monetary implications. His father must take a job as a doorman and when that doesn't work out, they are forced to take in boarders. These tenants treat the Samsa family as subservient, a fact that distresses Gregor: ?My, what a quiet life the family used to lead.? Gregor felt pride that he had managed to support his parents and sister Greta with such a life in a beautiful apartment. Instead of lamenting his own fate, he is thinking of how he has let his family down. Yet, they are too self-absorbed to consider Gregor's private torment. All that mattered to the family was that Gregor was able to provide. The purpose for his existence was to serve his family. After his secret change to an insect was discovered, they realized that he was no longer of any use to the family and he was unappreciated in every way. This is made clear in the beginning of the story when Gregor wouldn't let anyone in his room in fear that they would be horrified by his condition. He felt that everyone was angry and wanted him to get up for work, which he somehow felt that he might be able to accomplish. This is the ultimate example of the loyalty which Gregor exhibited all of his life. After his change into an insect, Gregor presented a problem for he had no function in the family. They locked him up, imprisoning him by not allowing him out of his room. Slowly, his possessions were removed, and for some time no one bothered to clean his room. Anything that was not needed for the moment was simply thrown into his room. To them he was only a bug and not their son and brother. They chose to ignore all his good and self-sacrificing acts before the change and did not show him the respect, which he deserved. It is apparent that there were certain things within the family that Gregor's change into a bug did not affect. Understanding Gregor was something that his parents failed to do. Relations between father and son had always been strained, as if all of Gregor's efforts were to receive some kind of paternal approval. His mother, after speaking to Gregor for the first time after his metamorphosis did not recognize any difference in his voice. This seems strange since he h imself was shocked as he heard his own voice answering hers. He knew that it was his own voice but that it had unmistakably changed drastically, suggesting that they didn't speak often. Therefore, both before and after the metamorphosis, they continued to misunderstand Gregor. They failed to realize that, even as a bug, Gregor was still there and that he could understand everything they had to say. Thus, both before and after the metamorphosis Gregor's

Aloe Vera and Lavender Essays

Aloe Vera and Lavender Essays Aloe Vera and Lavender Essay Aloe Vera and Lavender Essay Acid inside Aloe vera is used as effective pain killers. * Antiseptic made from Aloe vera is used to kill mold, bacteria, funguses and viruses. * Aloe vera uses include help in skin blemishes. * Acne is treated by Aloe vera gel and its really effective. * Aloe vera also helps in stopping baldness. * Important Aloe vera uses include relief from cuts, bruises and burns. When we are talking about Aloe vera uses, you will be surprised to know that there are 500 medicinal use of Aloe vera which has been mentioned in various books and is in practice. Since Aloe vera is very much found in tropical and sub tropical regions the uses of Aloe vera for people residing in those places are cheap and easy. But breaking the barriers Aloe vera uses has been spread globally and through out the globe people are using Aloe vera for their purpose. The most common form of Aloe vera is topical ointments as aloe jelly. These are the natural extracts of the leaves of Aloe vera plants. There are various uses of Aloe vera and this had been proved scientifically over the years. Ointments help in sores, cuts and bruises. Aloe vera uses includes cosmetics benefits and uses as beauty restoring things. At present much research is going on to see the cosmetic benefits of the Aloe vera plants and how it can be used to make cosmetic products shooting for your skin to give you a glowing and healthy effect. Aloe vera uses includes aphrodisiac. * Uses of Aloe vera included expelling our worms. * Act as purgative for lazy and weak people. * Aloe vera used to hel p healing blisters. * Jaundice is also healed by Aloe vera plants. * Aloe vera can be used in cough also. Pots and planter used for growing Aloe vera plants: We can say that Aloe vera has multi use and now day’s research is going on to cure acute and serious diseases like cancer, AIDS and tuberculosis. It will be a great achievement if Aloe vera is successful in curing these diseases. So Aloe vera is of great use and you can always rely on Aloe vera plants to cure your skin problems. The lavenders (Lavandula) are a genus of 39 species of flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae. An Old World genus, distributed from Macaronesia (Cape Verde and Canary Islands and Madeira) across Africa, the Mediterranean, South-West Asia, Arabia, Western Iran and South-East India. It is thought the genus originated in Asia but is most diversified in its western distribution. The genus includes annuals, herbaceous plants, subshrubs, and small shrubs. The native range extends across the Canary Islands, North and East Africa, Southern Europe and the Mediterranean, Arabia and India. Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing wild as garden escapees, well beyond their natural range. However, since lavender cross-pollinates easily, there are countless variations within the species. The color of the flowers of some forms has come to be called lavender. The leaves are long and narrow in most species. In other species they are pinnately toothed, or pinnate, sometimes multiple pinnate and dissected. Flowers are borne in whorls, held on spikes rising above the foliage. Flowers may be blue, violet or lilac. The calyx is tubular, with five lobes. The corolla is often asymmetric. [1] Lavenders flourish best in dry, well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils in full sun. [2] All types need little or no fertilizer and good air circulation; in areas of high humidity, root rot due to fungus infection can be a problem. Avoid organic mulches; use pea gravel, decomposed granite, or sand instead, as organics can trap moisture around the plants bases, encouraging root rot. [3] [edit] Uses The most common true species in cultivation is the common lavender Lavandula angustifolia (formerly L. officinalis). A wide range of cultivars can be found. Other commonly grown ornamental species are L. stoechas, L. dentata, and L. multifida. The lavandins Lavandula ? intermedia are a class of hybrids of L. angustifolia and L. latifolia. 4] The lavandins are widely cultivated for commercial use, since their flowers tend to be bigger than those of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest, but lavandin oil is regarded by some to be of a lower quality than that of English lavender, with a perfume less sweet. [5] [edit] Culinary use A bee on a lavender flower Flowers yield abundant nectar from which bees make a high-quality honey. Monofloral honey is produced primarily around the Mediterranean, and is marketed worldwide as a premium product. Flowers can be candied and are sometimes used as cake decorations. Lavender flavors baked goods and desserts (it pairs especially well with chocolate), and is also used to make lavender sugar. [6] Lavender flowers are occasionally blended with black, green, or herbal tea, adding a fresh, relaxing scent and flavour. Though it has many other traditional uses in southern France, lavender is not used in traditional southern French cooking. [7] In the 1970s, a herb blend called herbes de Provence usually including lavender was invented by spice wholesalers,[8] and lavender has more recently become popular in cookery. Lavender lends a floral and slightly sweet flavor to most dishes, and is sometimes paired with sheeps-milk and goats-milk cheeses. For most cooking applications the dried buds (also referred to as flowers) are used, though some chefs experiment with the leaves as well. Only the buds contain the essential oil of lavender, from which the scent and flavour of lavender are best derived. The French are also known for their lavender syrup, most commonly made from an extract of lavender. In the United States, both French lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scones and marshmallows. [edit] Medicinal use Lavender is used extensively with herbs and aromatherapy. English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) yields an essential oil with sweet overtones, and can be used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications. Lavandin, Lavandula ? intermedia (also known as Dutch lavender), yields a similar essential oil, but with higher levels of terpenes including camphor, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance. Mexican lavender, Lavandula stoechas is not used medicinally, but mainly for landscaping. Essential oil of lavender has antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties. It was used in hospitals during World War I to disinfect floors and walls. These extracts are also used as fragrances for bath products. According to folk wisdom, lavender has many uses. Infusions of lavender soothe and heal insect bites and burns. Bunches of lavender repel insects. If applied to the temples, lavender oil soothes headaches. In pillows, lavender seeds and flowers aid sleep and relaxation. An infusion of three flowerheads added to a cup of boiling water soothes and relaxes at bedtime. Lavender oil (or extract of Lavender) heals acne when used diluted 1:10 with water, rosewater, or witch hazel; it also treats skin burns and inflammatory conditions. [citation needed] A recent clinical study investigated anxiolytic effects and influence on sleep quality. Lavender oil with a high percentage of linalool and linalyl acetate, in form of capsules, was generally well tolerated. It showed meaningful efficacy in alleviating anxiety and related sleep disturbances. [9]

San Andreas Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

San Andreas - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that when a beautiful woman, a mother of a teenage daughter, leaves her handsome and extremely brave husband working as a firefighter to live with some cunning and extremely wealthy city architect it is no wonder that skyscrapers start falling and the earth literally cracks down.   That is how ancient Greeks would probably perceive the movie â€Å"San Andreas† because they believed in Gods and their ultimate revenge for human mistakes.   The slogan of the movie is more than eloquent: â€Å"Who you will be with when everything falls apart† and it makes viewers believe that this is more than just a family drama and more than just a disaster film. Being a disaster film â€Å"Sa Andreas† seems to be based on a drama of a good quality. Unfortunately, the plot cannot impress viewers with its originality but this fact must be attributed to the genre of disaster film in general. â€Å"San Andreas† does what a good mo vie of this kind must do: impress viewers, evoke fear and loath, bring in life apocalyptic sensations and images.   Despite such seemingly unpleasant characteristics disaster movies remain really popular, especially among Americans. It is because disaster films prove to be very successful at the box office, and â€Å"San Andreas† is not an exception.   It depicts a nuclear family on the edge of divorce being caught in the area struck by a series of natural catastrophes.  Ã‚  

Comparisons Over 1000s B.C of Years of Western and Asian Warfare Essay

Comparisons Over 1000s B.C of Years of Western and Asian Warfare - Essay Example In the ancient period, wars occurred for many reasons, some which were petty while others which had long term consequences. Some of the themes related to ancient warfare are the following: the ambitions of the various rulers of the time, the need to acquire scarce resources, wars in the name of religion, and finally the need to emulate the great empires or states that existed at the time. The personal ambitions of various rulers in the ancient world were a major factor behind the wars that occurred during that period. Rulers such as King Xerxes of Persia wanted to secure their positions at home. This was because when these rulers came to their thrones, their positions were very weak due to the fact that they had yet to prove themselves to be worthy of their positions. Very often, they had to go to as many wars as possible early in their reigns to not only to show their battle prowess, but also to prove to those that wanted to overthrow them that any sign of rebellion would be met wit h brutal force. Another way of proving their worth was by contributing to their forefathers’ legacy by adding to the territories which they had inherited. An example of this was when Xerxes who, within a few years of coming to the throne, embarked on the conquest of Greece which ended in the Persian defeat many years later. The same can be said of Alexander the Great of Macedon who within the ten years that he ruled Macedonia had conquered Persia, the largest and most powerful empire of the time. He did this not only to satisfy his ambition but also because he believed that his birth was divine and that he was therefore worthy of great deeds to prove that he was the son of a god. Until his sudden death at the age of thirty two, his greatest ambition had been to conquer the whole of the known world. A common theme closely related to the above was tyranny, especially in Ancient Greece which occurred mostly between the sixth and the fourth century. Fagan G G and Trundle M (229) state that the tyrants needed a constant supply of money to support not only themselves but also their regimes. These necessitated wars which if won would ensure a constant flow of tribute from the defeated foe. Mercenaries hired themselves to tyrants because of the good pay which they tended to receive, while the tyrants often hired them because their loyalty to their employer remained absolute so long as he kept them paid. The Persian Empire also had a long tradition of hiring mercenaries and this can be seen when one looks at the composition of the Persian army during the invasion of Greece. Soldiers from as far as India and Nubia in Africa were to be found within the Persian ranks and these, especially Nubia, were not even close to Persia. Ancient Egypt was and still is largely a desert with very few resources and heavily dependent on the River Nile as the source of its livelihood. The ancient Egyptians therefore had to look without to find those resources that could not be foun d in their country but which they really needed to make their lives more comfortable. It was with this in mind that the pharaohs, especially those of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twenty fifth dynasties embarked on a series of wars of conquest to bring other states with vital resources into the Egyptian sphere of influence. At its greatest extent, Egypt controlled Nubia in what are now southern Egypt and northern Sudan, and the whole of Palestine including the Phoenician city states. As a result, exotic goods from tribute

Consumer Protection Act Case Study

Consumer Protection Act Case Study This case study concerns the liability of a manufacturer of a product for harm which is suffered by the â€Å"ultimate consumer† of that product. It is important to consider the remedies that would be available in contract and under the doctrine of tortuous liability for defective goods. There is privity of contract in the relationship between Pamela and Cooks Stores and, therefore, in contract a remedy would be available to Pamela only. To invoke such a remedy under contract, Pamela should be able to rely on the terms implied into the contract by the Sale of Goods Act 1979, such as provided under s. 14 (2B) by which goods are not of satisfactory quality if they are unsatisfactory in terms of safety and durability, according to the standards of a reasonable person. The SGA provides recourse to a seller and, therefore, this act should enable Pamela to reclaim the  £175 purchase price of the food processor from Cooks Stores. According to the â€Å"narrow rule† in Donoghue v Stevenson a manufacturer owes a duty to the customer to take reasonable care when he sells goods in the form in which he intends them to reach the ultimate consumer with no reasonable possibility of intermediate examination. This rule is a variety of negligence and creates a regime of fault-based liability on the part of manufacturers, which will include retailers, such as Cooks Stores, alongside Price (UK) Ltd. Both Pamela and Rose are potential claimants since here they are both â€Å"ultimate consumers† and the rule covers those who receive goods as presents and bystanders. To bring an action in tort Rose, as the claimant, would have to show the existence of a duty of care, breach and causation. Rose might have a cause of action against Price (UK) Ltd as manufacturer, if she can show that there has been a failure in the production process, for instance. The doctrine of res ipsa loquitur may be useful here, as developed in Scott v London and St Katherine Docks Co., which, it has been argued, creates a rebuttable presumption of negligence on the part of the defendant. Following Erle CJ Rose would have to show that the accident was of the kind that does not normally occur in the absence of a want of care, that the defendant had exclusive control over the thing which caused harm and that the defendant cannot offer any plausible alternative explanation of what caused the accident. Although these would be evidential questions, they might help Rose to determine whether or not Price (UK) Ltd has breached its duty of care, which is important since experts are unable to identify the precise reason for the incident. It is important to consider the possibility of intermediate examination and whether Rose was using the food processor properly. While it is stated that Rose followed the operating instructions carefully, it should be noted that Pamela has used it previously – if not frequently – without difficulty. This leaves open the possibility that consumer misuse is at the root of the problem. Further, the manufacturer might be exonerated if another person can reasonably be expected to inspect their product. From the facts as presented it is unclear whether the food processor could reasonably be subject to an intermediate investigation, as was argued unsuccessfully by the defendant in Grant v Australian Knitting Mills. If this reasonable expectation arises the tester could be regarded as the cause of the harm, and therefore, Cooks Stores might be found to have contributed to the negligence of Price (UK) Ltd. It is, however, unclear whether a retailer can reasonably be expected to test every appliance that it sells. This defence would be unlikely to allow Price (UK) Ltd. to deflect all the blame on to Cooks Stores. The burden of proving the causal link between any breach of duty by Price (UK) Ltd and/or Cooks Stores and the harm suffered by Rose rests with Rose herself, as confirmed in Foster v Biosil. Should she fail to satisfy the burden of proof in this respect, her action will fail. Should Rose be successful, following Aswan Engineering she would be able to recover â€Å"non-integral† damage caused by the defect in the food processor, such as the vase. She would also have a claim for loss of amenity in respect of the personal injury to her hands and face, with a quantum to be evaluated. The regime introduced by the Part I of the Consumer Protection Act (CPA) 1987 would provide Rose with an alternative, since it purports to create a system of strict liability in respect of defective products that cause physical harm to a person or property. The CPA 1987 makes a producer, i.e. Price (UK) Ltd., responsible for the defectiveness of their product, however, according to CPA 1987 s. 3(1) regard may be had to any warnings which had been provided. The status of any such warning remains unclear. The CPA 1987 s. 3(2) allows a court to consider how a product might reasonably be used. It remains to be seen whether Rose was using the food processor for the correct purpose, even if she was attempting to follow the instructions. It is clear from CPA 1987 s. 6(4) that the defence of contributory negligence will apply to a defective product and any damages awarded to Rose may be reduced dependent on her blameworthiness. The CPA can be invoked against anyone involved within the chain of manufacture and distribution and liability is joint and several, so Rose would be best advised to sue whoever has the greatest financial resources. Cooks Stores, as a supplier, is however only liable to name their supplier and, accordingly, Price (UK) Ltd. will be Rose’s target for any damages. The CPA covers personal injury, but no damage to property under  £275 and, therefore, under the guise of this act, Rose would be unable to claim for the damage to her vase and would be advised to rely on tort.

Rodriguez and Mexico :: essays research papers

Rodriguez characterizes Mexico as a country with a culture of tragedy and America as a country with a culture of comedy. However, America is comedic in the Greek sense-in the sense that America is not comedic at all. Rodriguez feels that Mexico, in being the place of tragedy, is better off. America, on the other hand, has to face the burden of optimism, and the subsequent let-downs. Thus, in a sense, he characterizes them in ways that oppose what he truly thinks of them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mexico is described as tragic-those who are of Mexican descent are often very traditional in thought. Rodriguez’s father held the traditional beliefs that old men are wise, that life is disheartening, and near one’s death is the point where one must look back on their life. However, he also feels that Mexico is a happier place, with sweeter children and more lavish funerals. Perhaps he views Mexico as the tragic place because it represents a lost heritage to him. He, who in his middle age, finds himself agreeing with the Mexican ideals, nevertheless finds himself affected by living in America. Instead of being raised with the ideas of Mexican culture, he was raised with Protestant optimism characteristic of California. He was forced to abandon the way of life of his ancestors, even if only partially. America-more specifically, California, conquered the Mexican ways, and in so doing, lost the opportunity to reconcile the Catholic South and the Protest ant North. Thus, Mexico emerged as the tragic hero and California as the laughing victor. California is comedic because it is a place where it is possible to start anew, to defy the traditional.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rodriguez views California as a reconciliation between comedy and tragedy. It is both the place where many Mexicans immigrated to and the place where Americans move to escape the constraints of society. Mexicans hoped to experience the comedy of California-where it is possible to change your sex, divorce, and become famous. Even Rodriguez’s parents moved to California, and live in a house with many telephones and televisions.

Conflict Resolution in Public Sector

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1. 1Background to the Study Conflict is inevitable in organizations because, they function by means of adjustment and compromises among competitive elements in their structure and membership. Conflict also arises when there is change because, it may be seen as a threat to be challenged or resisted, or when there is frustration, this may produce an aggressive reaction, fight rather than flight. Conflict is not to be deplored, it is an inevitable result of progress and change and it can be used constructively. Conflict between individuals raises fewer problems than conflict between groups. Individuals cannot act independently and resolve their differences; members of group may have to accept the norms, goals and values of their group. The individual’s loyalty will usually be to his or her own group if it is in conflict with others. When the climate of the organization is not conducive to the needs of the personnel, conflict can result. In the past this conflict was regarded as inherently bad. Managers believed it was generated by trouble makers trying to disrupt the organization. Today, this stereotype view is no longer accepted. Conflict is currently regarded as inevitable and, if properly managed, a source of increased organizational effectiveness. The federal civil service commission is an organization of individuals and groups pursuing various goals. The federal civil service commission is established under section 153 (ii) of the 199 constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria. Specifically, part I (d), paragraph II of the third schedule to the constitution vests the commission with power to: (i)Appoint and promote persons to offices in the federal civil service, and. ii)Dismiss and exercise disciplinary control over persons holding such offices†. More so, in discharge of the above functions, the commission works in close operation with the ministries, departments and agencies (MDA’s) of the federal government. In area of recruitment and appointment, the commission relies on the MDA to provide it with vacancy positions and make a formal request that the commission should fill the vacancies. The MDA’s stipulate what should be the requisite qualifications for particular positions if they are not provided for by the scheme of service. The commission also invites experts from MDA’s, making a request for recruitment to participate in the interview as resource persons. MDA’s can also reject any particular selected candidate(s) if they convince the commission that he or she does not have the requisite qualifications. Promotion exercise is carried out only on the basis of vacancies provided by the MDA’s and all candidates for promotion must be recommended by the MDA’s. Resource persons from the MDA’s participate in the conduct of promotion examinations. The commission can dismiss and exercise disciplinary control only on the recommendation of the MDA’s. Section 170 of the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria empowers the commission to delegate any of its functions as it deems fit. The commission has therefore delegated the following functions to federal ministries and extra – ministerial departments in order to speed up action on appointment, promotion and disciplinary control of officers in salary grade levels 03-06. However, the disciplinary control of officers on salary grade levels 07-13 after being considered by the senior staff committees (SSC) in the ministries. In order to monitor the effective utilization of the delegated powers, participation of commissioners from the commission in the meetings of SSCs is mandatory. Indeed, without the participation of members of the commission, decisions reached at such meetings would be null and void. Moreover, returns on all appointments, promotions and disciplinary cases considered in the meetings should be rendered to the commission within two weeks of concluding such matters. In this research conflicts that arises as a result of the discharge of the federal civil service functions and duties and how they are managed will be discussed. Conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome of the close interaction of people who may have diverse opinions and values, pursue different objectives and have differential access to information and resources within the organization. Individuals and groups will use power and political activity to handle their differences and manage conflict. Too much conflict can be harmful to an organization. However conflict can also be a positive force because it challenges the status quo, encourages new ideas and approaches and leads to change. Some degree of conflict occurs in all human relationships, between friends, romantic partners and team mates as well as between parents and children, teachers and students and bosses and employees. Conflict is not necessarily a negative force, it results from normal interaction of varying human interests and the goals they wish to achieve through the organization. In any organization that encourages a democratic push and pull of ideas, the forces of conflict, power and politics may be particularly evident. Managers in all organizations regularly deal with conflict and struggle with decisions about how to get the most out of employees, enhance Job satisfaction and team identification and realize high organizational performance. Conflict between individuals and groups is a universal phenomenon. A better understanding of the important areas of conflict will help managers to use the people in the organization more effectively to reach organizational objectives. Failure to be concerned about conflict is very costly since ignoring it will almost guarantee that work and interpersonal relations will deteriorate. If this occurs, employees will have little motivation to work together and organizational effectiveness will suffer. 1. 2Statement of the Problem Each organization has an objective to achieve and the ability to achieve this objective depends on how integrated the personnel are in the pursuit of this objectives. The civil services of the federation objectives include the following:- i)Appointment of qualified candidates including promotion to man the different ministries/extra–ministerial departments in the federal civil service. i) Recommendations to government on personnel policies aimed at improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the federal civil service and, iii)Ensuring that personnel decisions including discipline are taken objectively, promptly and competently and that such decisions reflect the stated policies and interest of the government. The question to be investigated in the study proposed here will be, does conflict due to the lack of integration of the offi cer’s result to ineffective achievement of the objectives of the federal civil service commission? The question will be investigated using data already in existence with the addition of data that has accumulated since earlier studies were done and also data gathered during the research will be used. 1. 3Objective of the Study Effectiveness and efficiency can only be achieved in an organization when the various departments that exist in the organization work co-operatively. It is also one thing to argue that conflict can be valuable for an organization. However, this research work aims at finding out the positive and negative effects of conflict, what happens to an organization without conflict, it will also seek to explain the types of conflict that exist, their sources and how conflict can be managed, that is, how it is controlled, resolved and how it can be stimulated. Also the need for integration as a means for effectiveness and efficiency will be determined. 1. 4Significance of the Study We have come a long way since the days when conflict was believed to be universally destructive. Unfortunately, With the exception of some lip services given in recent years to the value of conflict in organizations, both practicing managers and management scholars continue to treat conflict management and conflict resolution as synonymous. There are some positive consequences to be gained from conflict, but also that organizations require functional conflict if they are to survive. There will be situations in which conflict levels are too low and as a result, the other side of the conflict management coin; conflict stimulation should not be ignored. Excessive levels of conflict can, and do hinder organizational effectiveness. Conflict should not be completely written off like in the traditional era, but should be encouraged as it helps to bring out efficiency and effectiveness if properly managed. Mary parker Follet herself said that there is no good or bad conflict, but conflict provides opportunities for good or bad result. 1. 5Research Questions At the end of the study, the following questions shall be answered 1. What are the types of conflict that exists in an organization? 2. What are the sources of the conflict? 3. What are the Strategies for managing conflict? 4. What are the values of conflicts? 5. What are the transitions in conflict thought? 6. How can conflict be stimulated and why? 7. How can conflict be controlled and resolved? 8. What are the positive and negative effects of conflicts? 1. 6Research Hypotheses 1. H0: Lack of integration between groups does not result to conflict in an organization H1: lack of integration between groups results to conflict in the organization 2. H0: Conflict if properly managed does not improve organizational performance. H1: Conflict if properly managed improves organizational performance 1. 7Scope and Limitations of the Study The scope of the study covers the departments including the offices of the commissioners of the various states in the federal civil service commission. The scope also covers the relationship between the groups, how integrated they are with one another in other to achieve organizational goals and objectives and how the conflicts that arise as a result of their relationship are managed. However, the limitations encountered during the course of this research are as a result of the limited time frame available in acquiring information. Being the Federal Civil Service Commission there are a lot of Bureaucratic bottlenecks, getting required information took a lot of time, the letter of introduction which was addressed to the chairman took about a month, of which I had to rewrite another letter before getting any response. As a result for the duration of time I went to the organization once every week till I got the information I needed. Most officers were unwilling to give information concerning conflict in the organization, some even refused to admit that conflict existed in the organization; some thought that conflict implies physical combats instead of interference by a person or group on another. Only a few of them seemed to know what conflict is really about. There is also the high cost of printing and photocopying of materials required for the study. 1. 8Definition of Terms Conflict: This is the behaviour by a person or group which is purposely designed to inhibit the attainment of goals by another person or group. Competition: Competition takes place when individuals or groups have incompatible goals but do not interfere with each other as they both try to attain their respective goals. Organization: A group of people who form a business club or work together in other to achieve a particular aim. Strategy: A plan that is intended to achieve a particular purpose. Management: Is the process of combining and utilizing, or of allocating organizations input (men, material and money) by planning, organizing, directing and controlling for the purpose of producing outputs (goods and services desired by customers so that the organizations objectives are accomplished). Value: Value is how much something is worth in money or other goods for which it can be exchanged or how much something is worth compared with its price. Structure: The way in which the parts of something are connected together, arranged or organized, a particular arrangement of parts, something that is made of several parts. Traditional: Being part of the beliefs customs or way of life of a particular group of people that have not changed for a long time. Intra-Individual Conflict: This refers to conflict within an individual about which work activities to perform. Inter-Individual Conflict: This refers to conflict between two individuals. Inter-Group Conflict: This is conflict between departments in a single firm as well as conflict between different firms. Conflict Management: Are techniques for controlling conflicting which either is to stimulate conflict or to resolve it. Conflict Stimulation: This enables groups or individuals in an organization who are too set in their ways or too willing to accept unquestioningly the view of a powerful individual. Conflict Resolution: These are techniques that are used in conflict situations. Smoothing: This is a conflict resolution technique which involves considerable use of tact by the party doing the smoothing. Playing down of differences between individuals and groups while, emphasizing their common interests. Consensus: Consensus requires the conflicting party to work together to find the best solution to their problem, an opinion that all members must agree. Confrontation: This technique requires the opposing parties to openly state their views to each other. A situation where there is an angry disagreement between people or groups who have different opinions. Integration: This technique requires the conflicting parties to collaborate in order to resolve the conflict. It requires both parties to have the attitude that, although they may be in conflict they will strive to develop collaboratively a solution that satisfies the needs of both parties. CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2. 1Definition of Conflict Organizational conflict is inevitable because of the regular and continuing human interactions that must occur. It can be defined as all types of opposition or antagonistic interaction. It is based on scarcity of power, resources or social position, and differing value structures. Conflict occurs, between managers and subordinates, between labour and management, between work groups, and between the organization and its external environment. Many of the traditional management writers, both classicists and neoclassicists, treated the existence of conflict as an indication of a problem, a disturbance that interfered with the smooth operation of the organization. Current management writers and practicing managers are careful not to assume that all conflict is bad instead, conflict is viewed as a phenomenon that arises in every organization to a certain extent, and in some organizations it is a positive indicator of highly motivated, highly committed organization members. Conflict can be a highly constructive force, particularly in highly differentiated organizations which utilize a considerable amount of horizontal integration. The challenge to modern management is not to avoid conflict or suppress it; instead, managers must find ways to channel the energy that conflict represents into activities with positive payoffs for the organization and to keep it within acceptable limits. Conflicts need to be resolved constructively, not hidden from view. According to Boone and Kortz (1987) conflict is opposition interaction resulting from scarcity of power, resources or social position, and different value structures on the part of the individuals or groups. DuBose (1988) sees conflict as any kind of opposition or antagonistic interaction between two or more parties; it can be conceptualized as existing along continuous range. At one extreme, there is no conflict. At the other extreme is conflicts highest state, described behaviourally as the act of destroying or annihilating the opposing party. All intensities of interpersonal, intra group and inter group conflicts would fall somewhere along this continuum. Inherent in this definition is the requirement that conflict must be perceived by the involved parties. In other words, if there is opposition but the parties fail to perceive it; then it does not exist. Similarly, if a conflict is perceived, it exists whether or not that perception is accurate. Griffin (2002) also sees conflict as a disagreement between two or more individuals, groups, or organizations. This disagreement may be relatively superficial or very strong. It may be short-lived or it can exist for months even years, and it may be work-related or personal. Conflict according to Mullins (2007) is seen as behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some other person’s goals. Conflict is based on the incompatibility of goals and arises from opposing behaviours. It can be viewed at the individual, group or organization level. Management establishes boundaries that distinguish acceptable and non acceptable behaviour from employees. The actions of employees are then judged as falling on one side or the other of these boundaries. According to Gray and Starke (1980) conflict is behaviour by a person or group which is purposely designed to inhibit the attainment of goals by another person or group. This purposeful inhibition may be active or passive. For example, in a sequential production line, if one group does not do its job and its output is the input for another department, the other department will be blocked from reaching its goals of say, producing at standard. Alternatively, the blocking behaviour may be active, as in the case of two fighters trying to knock each other out. The key issue in defining conflict is that of incompatible goals. When one person or group deliberately interferes with another person or group with the purpose of denying the other group goal achievement, conflict exists. Conflict and Competition Conflict is similar to competition but more severe competition means rivalry among groups in the pursuit of a common prize, while conflict presumes direct interference with goal achievement. The terms of conflict and competition are often mistakenly used interchangeably. Perhaps the most widely accepted view at present is that competition takes place when individuals or groups have incompatible goals but do not interfere with each other as they both try to attain their respective goals. Conflict on the hand occurs when individuals or groups have incompatible goals and they interfere with each other as they try to attain their respective goals. These definitions suggests that the key behavioural difference in conflict and competition analogous to the behavioural differences evident in a race and a fight. In the former, the goals are incompatible (only one runner can win), but the runners do not interfere with one another. In the later the goals are also incompatible (only one fighter can win), but interference is an obvious part of the conflict. Using these two definitions allows us to clearly categorize many of the familiar activities in our society. One of the things that become apparent immediately is that certain activities which are typically viewed as homogenous must be further broken down. For example, certain sports (boxing, tennis, football, hockey etc) are characterized by obvious blocking behaviour at the resource attainment level. The general public usually refers to what businesses do to each other in the market place as competition, this is an over simplification. At one extreme, business firms vigorously block one another’s attempt to achieve goals and this is conflict. For example, in an industry where consumer demand is low and industry production capacity is high conflict is almost certain to result as each firm attempts to reach its goals at the expense of the other firms. Blocking activity in these cases, often takes place at the activity level. A different situation exists in industries where government’s contracts are the rule. Here, competition is more likely. Each firm submits bids and strives to reach its goal of getting the contract. Blocking behaviour is not evident even though there can be only one winner and the goals of the firm are incompatible. 2. 2Nature of Conflict Conflict may manifest itself in various ways. People may compete with one another, glare at one another, shout, or withdraw. Groups may band together to protect popular members or oust unpopular members. Organizations may seek legal remedy. Working with diversity discusses how casual dress policies are creating conflict in some organizations. Most people assume that conflict is something to be avoided because it connotes antagonism, hostility, unpleasantness, and dissension. Indeed, managers and management theorists have traditionally viewed conflict as a problem to be avoided. In recent years however, we have come to recognize that, although conflict can be a major problem, certain kinds of conflict may also be beneficial. For instance, when two members of a site selection committee disagree over the best location for a new plant, each may be forceD to study and defend his or her preferred alternative more thoroughly. As a result of more systematic analysis and discussion the committee may make a better decision and be better prepared to justify it to others than if every one had agreed from the outset and accepted an alternative that was perhaps not well analyzed. As long as conflict is being handled in a cordial and constructive manner, it is probably serving a useful purpose in the organization. On the other hand, when working relationships are being disrupted and the conflict has reached destructive levels, it has likely become dysfunctional and needs to be addressed. According to Mullins (2007) conflict is not necessarily a bad thing however, it can be seen as a constructive force and in certain circumstances it can be welcomed or even encouraged. For example, it can be seen as an aid to incremental improvement in organization design and functioning and to the decision making process. Conflict can be an agent for evolution, and for internal and external change. Properly identified and handled, it can help to minimize the destructive influences of the win–lose situation. From a survey of practicing managers who reported that they spend approximately 20 percent of their time dealing with conflict situations a number of both positive and negative outcomes of conflict were recorded positive outcomes include. a. Better ideas produced b. People forced to search for new approaches. c. Long-standing problems brought to the surface and resolved. d. Stimulation of interest and creativity. e. A chance for people to test their capacities Negative outcomes include: a. Some people felt defeated and demeaned b. The distance between people increased c. A climate of mistrust and suspicion developed d. Resistance developed rather than team work e. An increase in employee turnover. According to Gray and Starke (1980) the positive outcome of conflict an as follows: a. The energy level of groups or individuals increase with conflict. This increased energy level can be seen when people talk louder, listen more closely to what is being said, or work harder. Two of the benefits organizations get from increased energy levels are increased output and innovative ideas for doing the work better. . Group cohesion increases. Research has shown that, when groups are engaged in a conflict, their internal cohesion increases. The other group is seen as the â€Å"enemy† and group resources are mobilized to meet the threat from the â€Å"outside†. To do this, disagreements within the group must be suppressed and all energies diverted towards the enemy. Thi s process can be seen in the mid-east; Arab nations have trouble getting along with one another except when a common threat (Israel) dominates their relationship. The reason that increased cohesion is considered a positive outcome of conflict is that highly cohesive groups can have high productivity, particularly if they support management goals. c. Problems are made known during conflict when conflict develops management can readily see that something is amiss and can embark in a program to resolve the conflict. If two groups are in disagreement about something but never make it known, they may work at a reduced level of effectiveness without management being able to determine why. This is particularly likely to happen if the problem between the groups is caused by some system of work that management has set up. Group members may be reluctant to criticize management about the system, and the conflict will not be made known. Negative outcomes d. A decline in communication between the conflicting parties,when individuals or groups are upset with each other, a common development is that they stop speaking. As we have seen, this is very dysfunctional because conflict is often worsened when there is little information passing between the conflicting parties. e. Hostility and aggression develop it is a typical human reaction to feel hostility toward someone who is blocking our attempts to reach a goal. Aggression (either physical or verbal) is also a common behaviour associated with hostility. While this may satisfy the person’s urges to attack the person doing the blocking, from the organizations point of view it is undesirable because it channels behaviour into non productive area. For example if two groups are in conflict about something they may spend much of the work day devising schemes to block the other group’s goal attainment. Obviously a point is reached where the work of each group does not get done. f. Over conformity to group demands. We noted above that conflict could cause groups to become cohesive and this might result in higher productivity. We must also recognize that members of a group faced with an outside threat may over conform to the group demands. This involves blind acceptance of the leaders’ interpretation of the opposing group and no thinking about solutions by anyone in the group. This prolongs the conflict and makes it more intense. As time passes, the group is unable to view its opposition with any objectivity and perceptions become very distorted. Either too much or too little conflict can be dysfunctional for an organization. In either case performance maybe low. However, an optimal level of conflict that sparks motivation, creativity, innovation and initiation can result in higher levels of performance. If there is absolutely no conflict in the group or organization, its members may become complacent and apathetic. As a result group or organizational performance and innovation may begin to suffer. A moderate level of conflict among groups or organizational members, on the other hand, can spark motivation, creativity, innovation and initiation and raise performance. Too much conflict though, can produce undesirable results such as hostility and lack of cooperation, which lowers performance. The key for managers is to find and maintain the optimal amount of conflict that fosters performance. Of course, what constitutes optimal conflict varies with both situation and the people involved. 2. 3Types of Conflicts The first step in learning to deal with organizational conflict is the recognition that all conflicts are not alike; they spring from different sources and must be resolved in different ways. The major categories of organizational conflict are; intrapersonal conflict, interpersonal conflict, person group conflict and inter group conflict. Intra personal conflict occurs within the individual that is a single member of the organization and comes primarily from two sources: role conflict and job stress. Role conflict is the simultaneous occurrence of two (or more) role sending such that compliance with one would make more difficult compliance with the other. For instance a person’s superior may make it clear to him that he is expected to hold his subordinates strictly to company rules. At the same time, his subordinates may indicate in various ways that they would like loose, relaxed supervision, and that they will make things difficult if they are pushed too hard. Such cases are so common that a whole literature has been created on the problem of the first line supervision as the â€Å"man in the middle†. In addition, role conflict may occur as the result of different roles an individual has to play. For instance, the role of parent and the role of employee may come into conflict when the employee’s child becomes sick. The wide spread presence of two wage-earner households and societal changes affecting values with respect to work have resulted in individuals being called upon to play a greater number of diverse roles. The result is increased frequency of this type of role conflict. The second primary source of intra personal conflict in modern organization is job stress. As the pace of change quickens in organizations and throughout society, workers may come to feel lost, unsure of what is expected of them, and unsure of their abilities to cope with what they perceive as ever– mounting pressure. While some stress may even be a positive factor in motivating individuals and in fueling innovation, chronic over stress leads to short-tempered, uncooperative defensive employees who may even indulge in such self destructive activities as alcoholism and drug abuse, the cost of such response to stress maybe the individual’s family. Job stress also results when the individual, on an on going basis, is unable to meet his or her own expectations, either in terms of performance (for example, the social worker who wishes to help people but feels unable to do so because of the nature of the system) or in terms of the nature of the work (for example, the assembling line worker who is bored by the repetitious nature of the job and feels that his skills and abilities are not being utilized). Intrapersonal conflict is a subject of increasing concern to organizations due to its damaging impact in Job performance, absenteeism and turnover. Employee counseling centers, company-sponsored stress management seminars, and management by objectives programs are just some of the methods currently being used to combat this problem. Interpersonal conflict is conflict occurring between two or more organizational members as a result of such factors as differences in managerial philosophies, values and problem-solving styles or competition for power or promotion. Traditionally this type of conflict was attributed to personality differences†. However, it can result from several factors. . Differences in values. For instance, one manager might place a great emphasis in task accomplishment to the exclusion of all else, while another might stress the need to maintain good employee relations even if performance of the immediate task is slightly affected. b. Differences in problem-Solving styles. One person may prefer to work in groups, for example, while another prefers to work alone. c. Differences in managerial philosophies. One manage may favour decentralization of decision making while another favours centralization. In addition, interpersonal conflict can occur due to competition between individuals, for power, for promotion, or for other organizational rewards. Because interpersonal conflict interferes with effective communication, and thus problem solving, it is a cause of considerable concern for modern organization. Organization development and communication training are frequently used methods of modifying interpersonal conflicts and channeling them into more constructive paths. a. Person-group conflict. This is conflict resulting from individual opposition to group norms or rules of behaviour that govern group membership. The classic example of this phenomenon is the â€Å"rate breaker† who consistently performs at a level well above that of other group due to fear that higher performance standards will be established based on the performance of the rate breaker. A more recent example is the treatment sometimes afforded the â€Å"Whistle blower†, the individual who brings to the attention of management or the general public instances of waste, fraud or corruption. Such individual may be ostracized and subject to harassment by other members of the group. On the other hand, person-group conflict can sometimes play a positive role within organizations. When an individual places his or her own needs for recognition or power ahead of the needs of the group to accomplish it’s task, group pressure can exert a powerful influence to bring the individual back into line with over all group norms. Intergroup conflict- This type of conflict occurs between departments or work groups and typically revolves around issue of authority, jurisdiction, control of work flow, or access to scarce organizational resources. It arises directly from the need for differentiation in an organization. To deal with complexity, we resort to specialization and specialists’ people with diverse cognitive and emotional orientations in the various functional areas. Such people frequently experience difficulty in communicating and cooperating. Yet, for an organization to act as a unit there must be integration or collaboration among the various departments. Thus, management frequently faces a problem. Long-run performance requires substantial integration, but efforts to generate collaboration often produce short-run conflict. Intergroup conflict arises from two sources: systems conflict and bargaining conflict. Systems conflict come about because of the divergence in objectives between work groups. For example, the marketing department may feel that rapid order processing is more important than quality control since replacing a defective unit is likely to produce less customer dissatisfaction than waiting on an unfilled order. The production department, on the other hand, may feel that its reputation depends on the continued high quality of its products and this belief may be supported by the incentive system used to govern rewards for production department personnel. Strategies for resolving system conflicts include rotation of department members among work units to improve understanding and empathy with the problems of other departments, charges in formal incentive systems to reflect overall organizational objectives related to the issue, and the use of horizontal integrative mechanisms such as task forces. Bargaining conflicts occurs when groups compete for scarce organizational resources or for power and influence within the system. An excellent recent example of such conflicts involved government attempts to reduce budget deficits by reducing expenditures. Interest groups both inside and outside government have attempted to influence this process to ensure that their programs are not cut. When viewed from the organizational level, conflict can often be categorized into two groups: Institutionalized and emergent. Each presents problem. Institutionalized conflict often results from organizational attempts to structure work assignments. This is clearly seen in the case of departmentalization, in which organizations group their personnel into major departments such as finance, marketing and production. Once assigned to such a bailiwick, it is common to find the personnel becoming highly concerned with the needs of their own particular department and relatively unconcerned with those of the others. Budget time finds everyone fighting for increased departmental allocations. Since this is a win lose situation, those who get percentage increases achieve them only at the expense of the other departments. Such a conflict situation, however, is often inevitable, since many people feel greater loyalty to their department in particular than to their organization in general. A similar type of institutionalized conflict emerges from the organization’s creation of a hierarchy. Low level managers have short-run problems related to work schedules and quotas. Top managers have long-run concerns related to the future course of the total organization. Each hierarchical level tends to be in some degree of conflict with the one above. Similarly, line and staff personnel are often at loggerheads. The former is responsible for making action decisions, the latter provides support help. Line-staff conflict is often brought about by the following attitudes and philosophies. Line officers are highly action-oriented; staff officers are concerned with studying a problem in depth before making recommendation. Line officers are highly intuitive in contrast to being analytical; staff officers are highly analytical, in contrast to being intuitive. Line officers are often short sighted, staff officers are often long-range orientated. Line officers often ask the wrong kinds of questions staff officers have answers and therefore spend their time looking for questions. Line officers wants simple easy-to-use solutions, staff officers complicate situations by providing esoteric data. Line officers are accustomed to examining some of the available alternatives and choosing one of them, staff officers are interested in examining all of the possible alternative, weighing them, analyzing them and then choosing the â€Å"best† one regardless of time or cost restraints. Line officers are highly protective of the organization, staff are highly critical of the organization. Each of these institutionalized conflicts is caused by the creation of a formal organization. Management cannot sidestep them; they are inherently in a hierarchical structure. All the organization can do is to try to manage them properly. Emergent conflict arises from personnel and social causes one of the most common is formal-informal organizational conflict. When the goals of these two groups are incompatible, problems can result. The objectives of the formal organization may call for more output than the members of informal organization are willing to give. A second form of emergent conflict arises from status incongruencies. Some people in the organization may feel that they know a great deal more than their supervisors about how to improve efficiency. However, status is often accorded on the basis of rank. Additionally, line managers often suffer status incongruency when staff advisers have the boss’s ear and can convince the latter to implement their recommendations. In such cases the line personnel are reduced to being order –takers, while the staff people call the shorts. Additionally, if personnel are highly trained or well educated and the organization assigns them a job requiring minimum ability, they often feel the work is below them and suffer status conflict. So, too do personnel who are promoted to higher positions but not given the symbols that accompany the office. For example, a person who is promoted into the top-management ranks but not given a private office and a secretary like the other top managers may well have status problem. These emergent conflict situations are personal and social in nature in that they involve individual and group norms. Whether or not there is a conflict depends upon how the people view the situation. An informal organization that feels management’s work quotas are too low may not have any problem accepting an increase in them. Likewise, a manager who is obvious to status symbols may not feel status inconsistency if the organization fails to provide a private office and a secretary. In most situations, however, this is not the case. 2. 4Sources of Conflict There are numerous sources of conflict within formal organization. Much has been written about the implications of conflict as a social process. The important point is not so much whether competing sub-groups and conflict are seen as inevitable consequences of organization structure, but how conflict, when found to exist, is handled and managed. The following are the sources of conflict according to Mullins (2007). Difference in perception- We all see things in different ways. We all have our own, unique picture or image of how we see the real world. Differences in perception result in different people attaching different meanings to the same stimuli. As perceptions became a person’s reality, value judgments can be a potential major source of conflict. Limited resources- Most organization resources are limited and individuals and groups have to fight for their share, for example at the time of the llocation of the next year’s budget or when cutbacks have to be made, the greater the limitation of resources, then usually the greater the potential for conflict. In an organization with reducing profits or revenue the potential for conflict is likely to be intensified. Departmentalization and specialization- Most work organizations are divided into departments with specialized functions. Because of familiarity with the manner in which they undertake their activities, managers tend to turn inwards and to concentrate on the achievement of their own particular goals. When departments need to co-operate, this is a frequent source of conflict. Differing goals and internal environments of departments are also a potential source of conflict. In Woodward’s study of management organization of firms in the country she comments on the bad relationships between accountants and other managers. One reason for this hostility was the beginning of two quite separate financial functions. People concerned with works accounting tended to assume responsibility for end results that was not properly theirs; they saw their role as a controlling and sanctioning one rather than a serving and supportive one. Line managers resented this attitude and retaliated by becoming aggressive and obstructive. The nature of work activities -Where the task of one person is dependent upon the work of others there is potential for conflict. For instance, if a worker is expected to complete the assembly of a given number of components in a week but the person forwarding the part assembled component does not supply a sufficient number on time. If reward and punishment systems are perceived to be based on keeping up with performance levels, then the potential for conflict is even greater. If the work of a department is dependent upon the output of another department, a similar situation could arise, especially if this situation is coupled with limited resources for example, where the activities of a department, whose budget reduced below what is believed necessary to run, the department efficiently, are interdependent with those of another department, which appears to have received a more generous budget allocation. Role conflict- A role is the expected pattern of behaviour associated with the members occupying a particular position within the structure of the organization. In practice, the manner in which people actually behave may not be consistent with their expected pattern of behaviour. Problems of role incompatibility and role ambiguity arise from inadequate or inappropriate role definition and can be a significant source of conflict. Inequitable treatment- A person’s perception of unjust treatment such as in the operation of personnel policies and practices, or in reward and punishment systems can lead to tension and conflict. For instance, according to the equity theory of motivation the perception of inequality will motivate a person to take action to restore equity including change to inputs or outputs. Violation of territory- People tends to become attached to their own territory within work organizations, for example to their own area of work, or kinds of clients to be dealt with, or to their own room, chair or parking space. Jealously may arise over other people’s territory for instance, size of room company car, allocation of an assistant or other perks, through access to information or through membership of groups. A stranger walking into a place of work can create an immediate feeling of suspicion or even resentment because people do not usually like, ‘their’ territory entered by someone they do not know and whose motives are probably unclear to them. Ownership of territory may be conferred formally for example by organization charts, job descriptions or management decisions. It may be established through procedures for instance circulation lists or membership of committees. Or it may arise informally, for example, through group norms, tradition or perceived status symbols. The place where people choose to meet can have a possible, significant symbolic value. For instance if a subordinate is summoned to a meeting in a manager’s office this might be taken that the manager is signaling higher status. If the manager chooses to meet at the subordinates place of work, or on neutral territory, this may be a signal that the manager wishes to meet the subordinate as an equal. If a person’s territory is violated this can lead to the possibility of retaliation and conflict. Environment change- Change in an organization’s external environment such as shifts in demand, increased competition, government intervention, new technology or changing social values, can cause major areas of conflict. For instance a fall in demand for, or government financial restrictions, on, enrolments for a certain discipline in higher education can result in conflict for the allocation of resources. If the department concerned is a large and important one and led by a powerful head, there could be even greater potential for conflict. There are other sources of organizational conflicts, including; Individual; Such as attitudes, personality characteristics or particular personal need, illness or stress. Group, Such as group skills, the informal organization and group norms. An Organization; such as communications, authority structure, leadership style, managerial behaviour. The age gap-relationships between older employees and younger managers, where experience is on one side and power on the other, can lead to conflict. According to Gray and Starke (1980) sources of conflict are as follows. Limited Resource Perhaps the most fundamental fact of organizational life is that resources are finite. Even the most successful companies have found that they are limited in what they can accomplish. With this realization groups and individuals see that there will be times when they will have to fight for what they want. The most obvious manifestation of this problem comes when the annual budget is set. Each department typically submits a request for its needs during the next fiscal year, and top management adjusts the request based on its knowledge of the total organization. Department heads often see their requests cut back because the resources for the total organization are limited. When cutbacks occur, however, the potential for conflict increases because the heads of various departments begin making value judgments about why management decided to cut back one department but not another. As a general rule the greater the scarcity of resources, the greater the potential for conflict. Interdependent work activities Added to the basic problem of finite resources is the problem of organizational units having to work together. It is bad enough to get less than you wanted for your department because of some other department, but then to have to work with other departments may be more than some managers can take. Suppose you are the head of department A, and in the yearly budget just approved by top management, you received considerably less money for operations than you thought was minimally necessary to run your department. Suppose also that you see that department B got most of what it asked for. If the work activities of your department are interdependent with those of department B, you might well consider purposely slowing down your departments work in attempt to convince top management that they made a mistake in their allocation of funds. This is a particularly salient cause of conflict because there is so much interdependence of work activities in organizations. On a grander scale, inter organizational conflict is often caused because the activities of many separate organizations must be coordinated. In May, 1979, California motorists found themselves in long lines waiting for gasoline. The oil companies, the oil producers, consumer groups, and the government spent considerable time arguing about who was to blame. The problem was most likely caused by the tight interdependence of work activities needed to get oil from wellhead to the consumer. Any purposeful disruption by one of the organizations in the system (e. g. Iranian government’s decision to reduce output) would cause conflict among the other parties in the system. As a general rule the more interdependent the work activities, the greater the potential for conflict. It is important for management to know the nature of work interdependence so system of work can be implemented that will reduce the potentials for dysfunctional conflict. Differentiation of activities We noted above that interdependence of work activities is an important source of conflict in organizations. Backing up a step furthermore, we can see that the mere existence of groups doing different functions created the potential for conflict. As groups become familiar with how they perform their jobs, they may turn inward and become uninterested in, (A) how their work fits in with other groups (B) the importance of other groups work. As a result, when difficult issues between the groups must be dealt with, each group behaves in a way that increases potential for harmful conflict. This differentiation in work activities leads to differentiation in goals. Production goals may be to have long production runs with few changes in product style because this allows the production facilities to operate at peak efficiency. Marketing’s goal, on the other hand maybe to give customers what they want when they want it. This means rush orders, special orders, and other demands that directly conflict with production goals. Communication problems Both the interdependence and differentiation of work activities demand that communication between individuals and groups be effective. However, this often does not occur. At the broadcast level, communication problems develop because not all groups have the same information. Each group therefore takes a position based on its view of the world and the information it has. The obvious solution to this problem is to give all groups equal information. However, this is generally not feasible because individuals with important information may want to use it for their own advantage and not share it. Communication problems are also caused by technical Jargon that is so frequently used in organizations. Overtime, each group develops its own language which may mean nothing to another group. When the two groups must deal with a contentious issue, the â€Å"Us vs. them† mentally more easily develops because of the meanings each group attaches to words. Differences in perceptions We all see the world slightly differently because we have all had different experiences. These different views of the world can be a major source of conflict in organizations because value judgments flow from these views. Differences in perceptions involve the value of experience vs. the value of education. Older, more experienced managers often are in conflict with younger, inexperienced managers about the way in which work should be done. The experienced person usually points out how knowledgeable he or she has become over the years, whereas the in experienced person argues for â€Å"new way† of doing things. Often this conflict is resolved by the older person exercising his or her authority. It is hard to make unequivocal statements about how differences in perception will influence conflict. It is also difficult to deduce exactly how a person views the world, unless the person is well known to the manager. Nevertheless, a realization that differences in perception (by groups or individuals) is crucial to conflict means that it must be included in any discussion of the sources of conflict. The environment of the organization Thus far, we have been concerned with factors inside organizations which cause conflict. However, changes in the firm’s environment (which it usually has no control over) can cause major conflict within the organization. In the late 1970’s, for example, college enrolment in liberal arts declined as students began entering disciplines which were more job-oriented. This shift in demand meant that there were pressures to reallocate resources within universities. These pressures caused real problem as the different faculties were in conflict as to how this reallocation should be done. As another example, consider a conglomerate which finds that the demand for the output of one of its divisions is rapidly declining. The obvious thing to do is to hit back activities in that division and channel corporate resources into more profitable divisions. However, if the division having difficulties is an important one, and its head is a powerful person, tremendous conflict may develop as other division heads argue for a redistribution of resources within the company. Other sources of conflict exist in organizations. They are; (A)Individual differences (some people enjoy conflict while others don’t) (B)Unclear authority structures (conflict develops because people don’t know how far their authority extends) (C)Differences in attitudes (members of different groups have different attitudes). D)Task asymmetries (one group is more powerful than another and the weaker group tries to change the situation. (E)Difference in time horizons (some departments have a long-run view and others a short-run view. 2. 5 Strategies for Managing Conflict Although a certain amount of organizational conflict may be seen as inevitable, there are a number of ways in which management can attempt to avoid the harmful effects of conflict. The strat egies adopted will vary according to the nature and sources of conflict outlined above. a. Clarification of goals and objectives. The clarification and continual refinement of goals and objectives, role definitions and performance standards will help to avoid misunderstandings and conflict. Focusing attention on superordinate goals that are shared by the parties in conflict may help to diffuse hostility and lead to more co-operative behaviour. b. Resource distribution. Although it may not always be possible for managers to increase their allocated share of resources, they may be able to use imagination and initiative to help overcome conflict situations. For instance, making a special case to higher management; greater flexibility to transfer funds between budget headings, delaying staff appointments in one area to provide more money for another area. c. Human resource management policies and procedures. Careful and detailed attention to just and equitable human resource management policies and procedures may help to reduce areas of conflict. Examples are job analysis, recruitment and selection; systems of reward and punishment; appeals, grievance and disciplinary procedures; arbitration and mediation, recognition of trade unions and their officials. d. Non-monetary rewards. Where financial resources are limited, it may be possible to pay greater attention to non monetary rewards. Examples are job design, more interesting challenging or responsible work, increased delegation or empowerment, improved equipment, flexible working hours, attendance at course or conferences, unofficial perks or more relaxed working conditions. e. Development of interpersonal/group process skills. This may help to encourage a better understanding of ones own behaviour, the other person’s point of view, communication processes and problem solving. It may also encourage people to work through conflict situation in a constructive manner. . Group activities. Attention to the composition of groups and to factors which affect group cohesiveness may reduce dysfunctional conflict. Overlapping group membership with a linking pin process, and the careful selection of project teams or task forces for problems affecting more than one group, may also be beneficial. g. Leadership and management. A more participative and supportive style of leadership and managerial behaviour is likely to assist in conflict management for example, showing an attitude of respect and trust, encouraging personal self- development, creating a work environment in which staff can work co-operatively. A participative approach to leadership and management may also help to create greater employee commitment. h. Organizational process. Conflict situations may be reduced by attention to such features as the nature of the authority structure, work organization, patterns of communication and sharing of information, democratic functioning of the organization unnecessary adherence to bureaucratic procedures and official rules and regulations. i. Socio-technical approach. Viewing the organization as a socio-technical system, in which psychological and social factors are developed in keeping with structural and technical requirements, will help in reducing dysfunctional conflict. 2. 6The Value of Conflict The interactionist philosophy does not propose that all conflicts are good for an organization. Excessive levels of conflict can and do hinder organizational effectiveness. It shows itself in reduced job satisfaction by employees, increased absence and turnover rates, and eventually in lower productivity. What the interactionist approach says is that managers should continue to resolve those conflicts that hinder the organization, but stimulate conflict intensity when the level is below that which is necessary to maintain a responsive and innovative unit. Without some level of constructive conflict, an organization’s survival will be in jeopardy. Survival can result only when an organization is able to adapt to constant changes in the environment. Adaptation is possible only through change, and change is stimulated by conflict. Change develops from dissatisfaction, from a desire for improvement, and from creative development of alternatives. In other words, change do not just happen, they are inspired by conflict. Conflict is the catalyst of change. If we do not adapt our product and services to the changing needs of our customers, actions of our competitors, and new technological development, our organization will be sick and eventually die. Is it not possible that more organizations fail because of two little conflict rather than too much? Without change, no organization can survive, and conflict spurs change. Opposition to others’ ideas, dissatisfaction with the status quo, concern about doing things better, and the desire to improve inadequacies are all seeds of change. Therefore, the factor that differentiates the interactionist philosophy most form its predecessors is the belief that just as the level of conflict may be too high, requiring resolution, it may also be too low and in need of stimulation. There is a growing body of literature that supports the contention that organizations that have levels of conflict above, zero are more effective, that is functional levels of conflict are conducive to innovation and higher quality decisions. For instance, a review of the relationship between bureaucracy and innovation found that conflict encourages innovative solution. This relationship was more recently confirmed in a comparism of six major decisions during the administrations of four U. S presidents. The comparism demonstrated that conformity among presidential advisers was related to poor decisions, while an atmosphere of constructive conflict and critical thinking surrounded the well- developed decisions. The bankruptcy of the penn central railroad has been generally attributed to mismanagement and a failure of the company’s board of directors to question actions taken by management. The board was composed of outside directors, who met monthly to oversee the railroad’s operations. Few questioned the decisions made by the operating management, though there was wide evidence that several board members were uncomfortable with many major decisions made by the management. Apathy and a desire to avoid conflict allowed poor decisions to stand unquestioned. It can only be postulated how differently things might have turned out for the penn central had it had an enquiring board which demanded that the company’s management discuss and justify key decisions. In addition to better and more innovative decisions in situations where there is some conflict, there is evidence that indicates that conflict can be positively related to productivity. It was demonstrated that among the high conflict groups was 73 per cent greater than that of those groups characterized by low conflict conditions. Similarly, an investigation of twenty-two teams of system analysts, which the researcher sought to assist the relationship between inter personal compatibility and productivity, achieved results consistent with the previous studies. The findings strongly suggested that the more incompatible groups were likely to be more productive. 2. 7Transition in Conflict Thought According to Dubose (1980), the development of conflict thought as professed by academic has gone through three distinct stages which he labeled as traditional, behavioural and internationalist. The prescription of the early management theories, the traditionalists, towards conflict was simple. It should be eliminated. All conflicts were seen as destructive and it was management role to rid the organization of them. This philosophy dominated during the nineteenth century and continued to the middle 1940s. Thetraditional view was replaced in the late 1940s and early 1950s with a behavioural approach. Those who studied organizations began to recognize that all organizations, by their very nature, had built in contents. Since conflict was inevitable, the behaviouralist prescribed â€Å"acceptance† of conflict. They rationalized its existence. However, as with the traditionalists, the behaviouralist approach to managing conflict was to resolve it. Looking at the behaviours of manager, it seems clear that the traditional philosophy is still the most prevalent in organizations. We live in a society that has been built upon anti-conflict values. Since our earliest years we have been indoctrinated in the belief that it was important to get along with others and to avoid conflict. Parents in the home, teachers and administrators in school, teachings of the church, and authority figures in social groups all have historically reinforced the belief that disagreement bred discontent, which acted to dissolve common ties and could eventually lead to destruction of the system. Certainly we should not be surprised to find that children raised to view all conflict as destructive would mature into adult managers who would maintain and encourage the same values. In addition, the senior managers in most organizations praise and reward managers who maintain peace, harmony, and tranquility in their units, while disequilibrium, confrontation, and dissatisfaction are appraised negatively. Given that managers seek to â€Å"look good† on the criteria by which they are evaluated, and since the absence of conflict is frequently used at evaluation time as a proxy for managerial effectiveness, it should not be surprising to find that most managers are concerned with eliminating or suppressing all conflicts. According to Gray and Stark (1980) there are two distinct phases of thinking about conflict: the traditional view and the current view. The traditional view of conflict assumes that conflict is bad for organizations. In the view of the traditionalist, organizational conflict was proof that there was something â€Å"wrong† with the organization. The Hawthorne studies were probably important in shaping the traditional view because in those studies the dysfunctional consequences of conflict were noted. Another likely factor in the traditional view was the development of labour unions and the often violent conflict between labour and management. During the early twentieth century labou